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line:xlsx:hash://sha256/181a039844a33e66a35a457b7ece741051086608e425a040051b79581d606b97!/Sheet1!/L1590	application/vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.spreadsheetml.sheet	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris australis		[MSW2] Includes naias and crassa; see Lidicker and Ziegler (1968:34) and Koopman (1982:8-10).; [MSW3] Includes naias and crassa; see Lidicker and Ziegler (1968) and Koopman (1982). Reviewed by Hill (1983); also see Kitchener et al. (1994d), Flannery (1995a, b), Bonaccorso (1998), and Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). Subspecies limits are somewhat unclear, particularly the status of the Kai Isl form (keyensis); see Kitchener et al. (1994d). It is possible that major from Ambon and Seram Isls represents a distinct species; see Kitchener et al. (1994d). Material from Haruku and Boano Isls differs from typical major and may require recognition as a distinct subspecies; see Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). There is also an undescribed subspecies from Biak-Supiori (K. Helgen, pers. comm.). High-altitude specimens of australis from mainland New Guinea are also in need of systematic revision (Kompanje and Moeliker, 2001).; [HMW] Macroglossus minimus var. australis Peters, 1867 , Rockhampton, Queensland , Australia . Syconycteris is sister to Macroglossus , being united as the only genera in the subfamily Macroglossinae . Syconycteris australis clearly contains multiple species based on unpublished genetic and morphological studies and is considered a species complex. Distributional limits of subspecies are uncertain. Seven subspecies recognized.; [batnames2022] Includes naias and crassa ; see Lidicker and Ziegler (1968) and Koopman (1982). Reviewed by Hill (1983); also see Kitchener etal. (1994 d ), Flannery (1995 a , b ), Bonaccorso (1998), and Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). Subspecies limits aresomewhat unclear, particularly the status of the Kai Isl form ( keyensis ); see Kitchener et al. (1994 d ). It is possible that major from Ambon and Seram Isls represents a distinct species; see Kitchener et al. (1994 d ). Material from Haruku and BoanoIsls differs from typical major and may require recognition as a distinct subspecies; see Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). There is alsoan undescribed subspecies from Biak-Supiori (K. Helgen, pers. comm.). High-altitude specimens of australis from mainland New Guineaare also in need of systematic revision (Kompanje and Moeliker, 2001).; [IUCN] Ongoing genetic and morphological studies reveal that Syconycteris australis contains more than one full species, with both allopatric and sympatric taxa (K.N. Armstrong, K.P. Aplin and K.M. Helgen unpublished data).; [batnames2023] Includes naias and crassa ; see Lidicker and Ziegler (1968) and Koopman (1982). Reviewed by Hill (1983); also see Kitchener etal. (1994 d ), Flannery (1995 a , b ), Bonaccorso (1998), and Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). Subspecies limits aresomewhat unclear, particularly the status of the Kai Isl form ( keyensis ); see Kitchener et al. (1994 d ). It is possible that major from Ambon and Seram Isls represents a distinct species; see Kitchener et al. (1994 d ). Material from Haruku and BoanoIsls differs from typical major and may require recognition as a distinct subspecies; see Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). There is alsoan undescribed subspecies from Biak-Supiori (K. Helgen, pers. comm.). High-altitude specimens of australis from mainland New Guineaare also in need of systematic revision (Kompanje and Moeliker, 2001).; [batnames2025_1.7] Includes naias and crassa; see Lidicker and Ziegler (1968) and Koopman (1982). Reviewed by Hill (1983); also see Kitchener etal. (1994d), Flannery (1995a, b), Bonaccorso (1998), and Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). Subspecies limits aresomewhat unclear, particularly the status of the Kai Isl form (keyensis); see Kitchener et al. (1994d). It is possible that major from Ambon and Seram Isls represents a distinct species; see Kitchener et al. (1994d). Material from Haruku and BoanoIsls differs from typical major and may require recognition as a distinct subspecies; see Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). There is alsoan undescribed subspecies from Biak-Supiori (K. Helgen, pers. comm.). High-altitude specimens of australis from mainland New Guineaare also in need of systematic revision (Kompanje and Moeliker, 2001).					(naias) (crassa)	crassa, finschi, keyensis, major, naias, papuana.	australis, papuana, finschi, crassa, naias, keyensis, major	australis, crassa, finschi, keyensis, major, naias, papuana		australis, crassa, finschi, keyensis, major, naias, papuana		australis, crassa, finschi, keyensis, major, naias, papuana		australis, crassa, finschi, papuana, keyensis, major, naias	Ongoing genetic and morphological studies reveal that Syconycteris australis contains more than one full species, with both allopatric and sympatric taxa (K.N. Armstrong, K.P. Aplin and K.M. Helgen unpublished data).	australis, crassa, finschi, keyensis, major, naias, papuana		australis, crassa, finschi, papuana, keyensis, major, naias	australis, crassa, finschi, papuana, keyensis, major, naias	australis, crassa, finschi, keyensis, major, naias, papuana		australis (W. C. H. Peters, 1867)|crassa (O. Thomas, 1895)|finschi (Matschie, 1899)|papuana (Matschie, 1899)|keyensis Andersen, 1911|major Andersen, 1911|naias Andersen, 1911		Corbet, G.B. and Hill, J.E. 1980. A World List of Mammalian Species. British Museum (Natural History), London, 226 pp.	Southern blossom bat	E New Guinea, NE Australia	Honacki, J.H., Kinman, K.E. and Koeppl, J.W. 1982. Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Allen Press, Lawrence, 694 pp.	Syconycteris australis	Australia, Queensland, Rockhampton.	Peters	1867	Monatsb. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, p. 13.	Distribution: Same as for genus except for northern Moluccas.		Corbet, G.B. and Hill, J.E. 1991. A World List of Mammalian Species. Third edition. Oxford University Press, London, 243 pp. ISBN 0-19-854017-5	Common blossom bat (Southern blossom bat)	S Moluccas, New Guinea, Bismarck Arch., Trobriand I, D'Entrecasteaux Is, NE Australia; ref. 4.12	Koopman, K.F. 1993. Order Chiroptera. Pp. 137–242 in Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Second edition. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, 1206 pp.	Peters	1867	Monatsb. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1867:13.	Includes naias and crassa; see Lidicker and Ziegler (1968:34) and Koopman (1982:8-10).	E Queensland and New South Wales (Australia); New Guinea; D'Entrecasteaux Isis, Trobriand Isis, Louisiade Arch., and Bismarck Arch. (Papua New Guinea); Molucca Isis; various adjacent small islands.	Australia, Queensland, Rockhampton.		PETERS	1867	Size relatively small (forearm length, 38-49 mm). Uropatagium present. Terminal phalanx of third digit of wing less than 34 mm. Ear pinna relatively long and pointed. Metatarsus and digits of foot relatively naked.	Distribution: Same as for genus except for northern Moluccas.	Seven subspecies recog nized here:	S. a. australis (eastern Australia), S. a. papuana (New Guinea and some nearby islands; including the Louisiades), S. a.finschi (Bismarcks), S. a. crassa (Fergusson and Kiriwina islands in the East Papuan group), S. a. naias (Woodlark island in the East Papuan group), S. a. keyensis (Keis), S. a. major (Ceram and nearby islands).	38	species	S. australis	PETERS	1867	Syconycteris	genus	Syconycteris australis				Size relatively small (forearm length, 38-49 mm). Uropatagium present. Terminal phalanx of third digit of wing less than 34 mm. Ear pinna relatively long and pointed. Metatarsus and digits of foot relatively naked.	Seven subspecies recog nized here:		1. S. australis (PETERS 1867).	1	_S. a. australis_ (Peters, 1867); _S. a. crassa_ (Thomas, 1895); _S. a. finschi_ (Matschie, 1899); _S. a. keyensis_ Andersen, 1911; _S. a. major_ Andersen, 1911; _S. a. naias_ Andersen, 1911; _S. a. papuana_ (Matschie, 1899)			Don E. Wilson & DeeAnn M. Reeder (editors). 2005. Mammal Species of the World. A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed), Johns Hopkins University Press, 2,142 pp. (Available from Johns Hopkins University Press, 1-800-537-5487 or (410) 516-6900, or at http://www.press.jhu.edu).	CHIROPTERA	Pteropodidae			Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris		australis	Peters	y	1867		Monatsb. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin	1867		13, footnote		Southern Blossom Bat	Australia, Queensland, Rockhampton.	E Queensland and New South Wales (Australia); New Guinea, Aru Isl, Trobriand Isls, D'Entrecasteaux Isls, Kai Isls, Ambon, Seram, Haruku, and Boano Isls. (Indonesia), Bismarck Arch., including Manus (Papua New Guinea).	IUCN/SSC Action Plan (1992) – Not Threatened. IUCN 2003 – Lower Risk (lc).	crassa Thomas, 1895; finschi Matschie, 1899; keyensis K. Andersen, 1911; major K. Andersen, 1911; naias K. Andersen, 1911; papuana Matschie, 1899.	Includes naias and crassa; see Lidicker and Ziegler (1968) and Koopman (1982). Reviewed by Hill (1983); also see Kitchener et al. (1994d), Flannery (1995a, b), Bonaccorso (1998), and Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). Subspecies limits are somewhat unclear, particularly the status of the Kai Isl form (keyensis); see Kitchener et al. (1994d). It is possible that major from Ambon and Seram Isls represents a distinct species; see Kitchener et al. (1994d). Material from Haruku and Boano Isls differs from typical major and may require recognition as a distinct subspecies; see Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). There is also an undescribed subspecies from Biak-Supiori (K. Helgen, pers. comm.). High-altitude specimens of australis from mainland New Guinea are also in need of systematic revision (Kompanje and Moeliker, 2001).	03AD87FAFFEBF60589633E57F85DFA30	Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions	978-84-16728-19-0	hbmw_9_Pteropodidae_16.pdf.imf	hash://md5/ff94ff82ffc4f62a891e341cffa5ff9b	104	zip:hash://sha256/ec5fd314a06aba1a7b0b72f23e54ac625ae272bd98f82f1d01f4c09627d9e8e0!/treatments-xml-main/data/03/AD/87/03AD87FAFFEAF60589B4390FFDFAF666.xml	Syconycteris australis	Pteropodidae	Syconycteris	australis		1867	Syconyctére du Queensland @fr | Sidlicher Blutenflughund @de | Syconicterio de Queensland @es | Blossom Bat @en | Common Blossom Bat @en | Eastern Blossom Bat @en	Macroglossus minimus var. australis Peters, 1867 , Rockhampton, Queensland , Australia . Syconycteris is sister to Macroglossus , being united as the only genera in the subfamily Macroglossinae . Syconycteris australis clearly contains multiple species based on unpublished genetic and morphological studies and is considered a species complex. Distributional limits of subspecies are uncertain. Seven subspecies recognized.	S.a.australisPeters,1867—NE&EAustraliainEQueenslandandNENewSouthWales,includingHinchinbrook,Magnetic,andFraserIs. S.a.crassaThomas,1895—TrobriandIsandD’EntrecasteauxIs(Fergusson). S.a.finschiMatschie,1899—AdmiraltyIs(Manus)andBismarckArchipelago(NewIreland,NewBritain,andsmallersurroundingIs). S.a.keyensisK.Andersen,1911—KaiIs. S.a.majorK.Andersen,1911—CMoluccas(Buru,Boano,Ambon,Haruku,andSeramIs). S.a.naiasK.Andersen,1911—WoodlarkI. S.a.papuanaMatschie,1899—NMoluccas(GebeI),NewGuinea(includingBatanta, S.a., Yapen, and several other offshore Is), and Aru Is (Tanahbesar = Wokam). Also found on Biak-SupioriIs, although this population likely represents an unnamed subspecies.	Head—body 55-80 mm (tailless), ear 9-17 mm , hindfoot 7- 4-15 mm , forearm 38-48 mm ; weight 13-23- 5 g . Syconycteris is very similar to Macroglossus but can be distinguished byits lack of uropatagium (strip of fur remains in its place) and I, being larger than I, with no gap between them. There is considerable variation in cranial dimensions, pelage color, and size throughout the distribution of the Southern Blossom Bat. Head and muzzle are elongated, with raised forward-facing nostrils. Fur is somewhat woolly and shorter than in the Moss-forest Blossom Bat (S. Zobbit). Dorsal pelage varies from light brown to fawn to reddish brown; ventral pelage is lighter and whiter or creamier. Young are grayer overall. Eyes are large, with dark reddish brown irises; ears are elongated, with bluntly rounded tips, and colored like dorsum. Wings and digits are dark brownish; second digit of wing has a claw. There is no uropatagium, but there is a strip of longer fur along inside of legs where uropatagium would be present; calcar is absent. Skull is elongated, with long rostrum (shorter than in Macroglossus ), and jaws and dentition are much more robust than in species of Macroglossus . Dental formula for species of Syconycterisis12/2,C1/1,P 3/3, M 2/3 (x2) = 34. Molars and premolars are largely reduced, narrow, and linear with flat tops; upper incisors are uniformly large and procumbent; M* and M, are completely missing in some populations (e.g. subspecies naias); and I, are much larger than I, and do not have any gaps between them.	Various forested habitats, such as upper and lower montane forests, hill forests, heathlands, lowland rainforests, monsoon forests, dry sclerophyll woodlands, and Melaleuca ( Myrtaceae ) swamps from sea level up to elevations of ¢. 3000 m . The Southern Blossom Bat occurs sympatrically with the Moss-forest Blossom Bat in moss forests in New Guinea , and it is often found in association with plantations and gardens,especially when foraging.	The Southern Blossom Bat is a specialized nectar and pollen feeder, as evident by its long papillae-tipped tongue, but it also eats fruit. Papillae on tongue increase its surface area and act as a nectar-absorbing mop. They land on or hovers near flowers and are commonly seen with pollen covering their faces. Most of their diet comes from nectar, but they also eat pollen attached to their fur, consuming it while grooming. Pollen is considered a valuable food source because it provides a number of nutrients that are not found in nectar. Their hairs have microscopic pollentrapping scales to maximize pollen capture for consumption while grooming. As a result, the Southern Blossom Bat acts as a pollinator for the various plant species. Diet is highly variable based on availabilities of specific flowering trees that change with habitat and seasonally. In New South Wales, they feed primarily on Banksia ( Proteaceae ) and Callistemon ( Myrtaceae ) nectar and pollen, but in Queensland, theyfeed largely on nectar and pollen of Melaleuca , Banksia , Grevillea ( Proteaceae ), and Eucalyptus ( Myrtaceae ) along with a wide variety of rainforests plants (particularly Syzygium , Myrtaceae ). They have also been recorded feeding on some agriculturally important flowering plants, including Musa ( Musaceae ). In Queensland, they were recorded eating fruit of a few species (especially Ficus , Moraceae ). In New Guinea , fruit makes up a larger proportion of their diet than nectar. Seeds of Ficus and Timonius ( Rubiaceae ) are commonly found in feces in Queensland. They were recorded feeding on fruit of Moraceae ( Ficus ), Piperaceae ( Piper and Pothomorphe), Solanaceae , and other plants, including seeds that were regularly found in feces. More northerly populations tend to feed on fruit more regularly than southern populations. Northern populations seem to rarely feed on leaves. They are the key pollinator of Mucuna macropoda ( Fabaceae ) on the Sogeri Plateau, Papua New Guinea ; when theyfeed, the corolla is forcibly pushed, which triggers the plant to deposit pollen into an individual's throat. In terms of energy and nutrient intake, nectar provides sugar for energy, and pollen primarily provides protein. Fruit probably provides other nutrients not found in nectar or pollen. A key factor in determining foraging location and population limitation of Southern Blossom Batsis the overall energyavailable via nectar rather than amount of protein via pollen.	Southern Blossom Bats breed twice a year and are polygynous, giving birth in October-November and February-April in New South Wales. These two birthing periods occur one right after the other. In New Guinea , they also seem to have two litters sequentially in November—July. Nevertheless, pregnant and lactating females have been captured in January—November throughout New Guinea , suggesting that breeding occurs year-round. Litter size is one young. Gestation lasts c¢.4 months (although this might change slightly depending on how much embryonic development was delayed during torpor), and they nurse young for c.3 months. While lactating, females carry their young on their venters. Males reach sexual maturity at c.1 year old and females at 6-8 months old. Southern Blossom Bats are known to live 2-6 years (average five years) in captivity, possibly living longer in the wild.	Southern Blossom Bats are nocturnal, foraging throughout much of the night. They will forage despite most weather conditions, including rain. They leave roosts at sunset and return just before dawn. Brightness of the moon seemsto affect foraging pattern by delaying departure from day roosts by as much as four hours on strongly moonlit nights (full moons). They have high energetic demands, and to conserve energy, they will go into torpor during the day. Pregnant females enter torpor to reduce their metabolic rate to less than one-half their normal rate, but they are unable to do this for as long as non-pregnant females. As ambient temperature decreases in lowland populations ( 0-650 m ), so does body temperature and metabolic rate. They generally maintain body temperatures of 35-36°C, but when ambient temperatures decrease to lower than 30°C, body temperature can decrease after several hours, staying c.2-5—4°C above ambient temperatures. At higher elevations (6560- 2100 m , probably up to 3000 m ), Southern Blossom Bats are well adapted to cope with lower temperatures and do not decrease body temperature even after being in a 14°C environment for several hours. They maintain their metabolic rate using adequate energy reserves, although exact mechanisms responsible are uncertain. They primarily roost in rainforest subcanopies but can be found in canopies. Day roosts are found under large and occasionally dead leaves, generally on growing tips of saplings, or in dense vines.	Southern Blossom Bats primarily roost alone or in mother-young pairs. They typically do not roost in the same place every day, selecting a different roost every morning that is typically within 50 m of the previous roost. They roost near forest edges in winter and deep within forests where it is cooler in summer. While foraging throughout the night, they will travel up to 4 km from their roosts to feeding areas, which can take 2-3 hours to get to because individuals sample other food sources along the way. They make the samejourney back to their roosting area early in the morning. They are highly territorial of their feeding areas and chase off conspecifics in their foraging area. Males seem to be more aggressive in their home ranges and apparently fly closer to the ground more often than females. Males seem to be more localized than females based on recapture rates. Near Crater Mountain Volcano in Papua New Guinea , nearly all recaptured individuals were males (recapture rate was 10-3%). Foraging areas are generally c.13 ha, and they use the same general area every night. Densities are 1-18 ind/ha and depend largely on availability of nectar rather than pollen. Sex ratio at Crater Mountain over a 14-month period was 0-71:0-29; bias toward males might have been due to sampling bias relative to where females foraged and flew because mist nets were 4 m aboveground.	Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Southern Blossom Bat seems to be highly adaptable and tolerant of habitat modification and does not seem to face any major threats. Nevertheless, south of Fraser Island in Queensland , it is locally threatened by drainage of Melaleuca ( Myrtaceae ) swamps. Additional research on its taxonomy could result in designation of new species with smaller distributions and populations that could be threatened.	Aplin & Armstrong (2016a) | Birt et al. (1997) | Bonaccorso (1998) | Bonaccorso & McNab (1997) | Churchill (2008) | Coburn & Geiser (1998) | Dumont & O'Neal (2004) | Flannery (1995a, 1995b) | Geiser & Coburn (1999) | Geiser, Coburn et al. (1996) | Geiser, Kortner & Law (2001) | Geiser, Law & Kértner (2005) | Giannini & Simmons (2007a) | Kitchener, Packer & Maryanto (1994) | Law (1992a, 1992b, 1993a, 1993b, 1994a, 1994b, 1995, 1996, 1997 2001) | Law & Lean (1999) | Law & Spencer (2008) | Lawrence (1991) | Nelson (1964a) | Nicolay & Dumont (2000) | Winkelmann etal. (2000)		75. Southern Blossom Bat Syconycteris australis French: Syconyctére du Queensland / German: Sidlicher Blutenflughund / Spanish: Syconicterio de Queensland Other common names: Blossom Bat , Common Blossom Bat , Eastern Blossom Bat Taxonomy. Macroglossus minimus var. australis Peters, 1867 , Rockhampton, Queensland , Australia . Syconycteris is sister to Macroglossus , being united as the only genera in the subfamily Macroglossinae . Syconycteris australis clearly contains multiple species based on unpublished genetic and morphological studies and is considered a species complex. Distributional limits of subspecies are uncertain. Seven subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. S.a.australisPeters,1867—NE&EAustraliainEQueenslandandNENewSouthWales,includingHinchinbrook,Magnetic,andFraserIs. S.a.crassaThomas,1895—TrobriandIsandD’EntrecasteauxIs(Fergusson). S.a.finschiMatschie,1899—AdmiraltyIs(Manus)andBismarckArchipelago(NewIreland,NewBritain,andsmallersurroundingIs). S.a.keyensisK.Andersen,1911—KaiIs. S.a.majorK.Andersen,1911—CMoluccas(Buru,Boano,Ambon,Haruku,andSeramIs). S.a.naiasK.Andersen,1911—WoodlarkI. S.a.papuanaMatschie,1899—NMoluccas(GebeI),NewGuinea(includingBatanta, S.a., Yapen, and several other offshore Is), and Aru Is (Tanahbesar = Wokam). Also found on Biak-SupioriIs, although this population likely represents an unnamed subspecies. Descriptive notes. Head—body 55-80 mm (tailless), ear 9-17 mm , hindfoot 7- 4-15 mm , forearm 38-48 mm ; weight 13-23- 5 g . Syconycteris is very similar to Macroglossus but can be distinguished byits lack of uropatagium (strip of fur remains in its place) and I, being larger than I, with no gap between them. There is considerable variation in cranial dimensions, pelage color, and size throughout the distribution of the Southern Blossom Bat. Head and muzzle are elongated, with raised forward-facing nostrils. Fur is somewhat woolly and shorter than in the Moss-forest Blossom Bat (S. Zobbit). Dorsal pelage varies from light brown to fawn to reddish brown; ventral pelage is lighter and whiter or creamier. Young are grayer overall. Eyes are large, with dark reddish brown irises; ears are elongated, with bluntly rounded tips, and colored like dorsum. Wings and digits are dark brownish; second digit of wing has a claw. There is no uropatagium, but there is a strip of longer fur along inside of legs where uropatagium would be present; calcar is absent. Skull is elongated, with long rostrum (shorter than in Macroglossus ), and jaws and dentition are much more robust than in species of Macroglossus . Dental formula for species of Syconycterisis12/2,C1/1,P 3/3, M 2/3 (x2) = 34. Molars and premolars are largely reduced, narrow, and linear with flat tops; upper incisors are uniformly large and procumbent; M* and M, are completely missing in some populations (e.g. subspecies naias); and I, are much larger than I, and do not have any gaps between them. Habitat. Various forested habitats, such as upper and lower montane forests, hill forests, heathlands, lowland rainforests, monsoon forests, dry sclerophyll woodlands, and Melaleuca ( Myrtaceae ) swamps from sea level up to elevations of ¢. 3000 m . The Southern Blossom Bat occurs sympatrically with the Moss-forest Blossom Bat in moss forests in New Guinea , and it is often found in association with plantations and gardens,especially when foraging. Food and Feeding. The Southern Blossom Bat is a specialized nectar and pollen feeder, as evident by its long papillae-tipped tongue, but it also eats fruit. Papillae on tongue increase its surface area and act as a nectar-absorbing mop. They land on or hovers near flowers and are commonly seen with pollen covering their faces. Most of their diet comes from nectar, but they also eat pollen attached to their fur, consuming it while grooming. Pollen is considered a valuable food source because it provides a number of nutrients that are not found in nectar. Their hairs have microscopic pollentrapping scales to maximize pollen capture for consumption while grooming. As a result, the Southern Blossom Bat acts as a pollinator for the various plant species. Diet is highly variable based on availabilities of specific flowering trees that change with habitat and seasonally. In New South Wales, they feed primarily on Banksia ( Proteaceae ) and Callistemon ( Myrtaceae ) nectar and pollen, but in Queensland, theyfeed largely on nectar and pollen of Melaleuca , Banksia , Grevillea ( Proteaceae ), and Eucalyptus ( Myrtaceae ) along with a wide variety of rainforests plants (particularly Syzygium , Myrtaceae ). They have also been recorded feeding on some agriculturally important flowering plants, including Musa ( Musaceae ). In Queensland, they were recorded eating fruit of a few species (especially Ficus , Moraceae ). In New Guinea , fruit makes up a larger proportion of their diet than nectar. Seeds of Ficus and Timonius ( Rubiaceae ) are commonly found in feces in Queensland. They were recorded feeding on fruit of Moraceae ( Ficus ), Piperaceae ( Piper and Pothomorphe), Solanaceae , and other plants, including seeds that were regularly found in feces. More northerly populations tend to feed on fruit more regularly than southern populations. Northern populations seem to rarely feed on leaves. They are the key pollinator of Mucuna macropoda ( Fabaceae ) on the Sogeri Plateau, Papua New Guinea ; when theyfeed, the corolla is forcibly pushed, which triggers the plant to deposit pollen into an individual's throat. In terms of energy and nutrient intake, nectar provides sugar for energy, and pollen primarily provides protein. Fruit probably provides other nutrients not found in nectar or pollen. A key factor in determining foraging location and population limitation of Southern Blossom Batsis the overall energyavailable via nectar rather than amount of protein via pollen. Breeding. Southern Blossom Bats breed twice a year and are polygynous, giving birth in October-November and February-April in New South Wales. These two birthing periods occur one right after the other. In New Guinea , they also seem to have two litters sequentially in November—July. Nevertheless, pregnant and lactating females have been captured in January—November throughout New Guinea , suggesting that breeding occurs year-round. Litter size is one young. Gestation lasts c¢.4 months (although this might change slightly depending on how much embryonic development was delayed during torpor), and they nurse young for c.3 months. While lactating, females carry their young on their venters. Males reach sexual maturity at c.1 year old and females at 6-8 months old. Southern Blossom Bats are known to live 2-6 years (average five years) in captivity, possibly living longer in the wild. Activity patterns. Southern Blossom Bats are nocturnal, foraging throughout much of the night. They will forage despite most weather conditions, including rain. They leave roosts at sunset and return just before dawn. Brightness of the moon seemsto affect foraging pattern by delaying departure from day roosts by as much as four hours on strongly moonlit nights (full moons). They have high energetic demands, and to conserve energy, they will go into torpor during the day. Pregnant females enter torpor to reduce their metabolic rate to less than one-half their normal rate, but they are unable to do this for as long as non-pregnant females. As ambient temperature decreases in lowland populations ( 0-650 m ), so does body temperature and metabolic rate. They generally maintain body temperatures of 35-36°C, but when ambient temperatures decrease to lower than 30°C, body temperature can decrease after several hours, staying c.2-5—4°C above ambient temperatures. At higher elevations (6560- 2100 m , probably up to 3000 m ), Southern Blossom Bats are well adapted to cope with lower temperatures and do not decrease body temperature even after being in a 14°C environment for several hours. They maintain their metabolic rate using adequate energy reserves, although exact mechanisms responsible are uncertain. They primarily roost in rainforest subcanopies but can be found in canopies. Day roosts are found under large and occasionally dead leaves, generally on growing tips of saplings, or in dense vines. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Southern Blossom Bats primarily roost alone or in mother-young pairs. They typically do not roost in the same place every day, selecting a different roost every morning that is typically within 50 m of the previous roost. They roost near forest edges in winter and deep within forests where it is cooler in summer. While foraging throughout the night, they will travel up to 4 km from their roosts to feeding areas, which can take 2-3 hours to get to because individuals sample other food sources along the way. They make the samejourney back to their roosting area early in the morning. They are highly territorial of their feeding areas and chase off conspecifics in their foraging area. Males seem to be more aggressive in their home ranges and apparently fly closer to the ground more often than females. Males seem to be more localized than females based on recapture rates. Near Crater Mountain Volcano in Papua New Guinea , nearly all recaptured individuals were males (recapture rate was 10-3%). Foraging areas are generally c.13 ha, and they use the same general area every night. Densities are 1-18 ind/ha and depend largely on availability of nectar rather than pollen. Sex ratio at Crater Mountain over a 14-month period was 0-71:0-29; bias toward males might have been due to sampling bias relative to where females foraged and flew because mist nets were 4 m aboveground. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Southern Blossom Bat seems to be highly adaptable and tolerant of habitat modification and does not seem to face any major threats. Nevertheless, south of Fraser Island in Queensland , it is locally threatened by drainage of Melaleuca ( Myrtaceae ) swamps. Additional research on its taxonomy could result in designation of new species with smaller distributions and populations that could be threatened. Bibliography. Aplin & Armstrong (2016a), Birt et al. (1997), Bonaccorso (1998), Bonaccorso & McNab (1997), Churchill (2008), Coburn & Geiser (1998), Dumont & O'Neal (2004), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), Geiser & Coburn (1999), Geiser, Coburn et al. (1996), Geiser, Kortner & Law (2001), Geiser, Law & Kértner (2005), Giannini & Simmons (2007a), Kitchener, Packer & Maryanto (1994), Law (1992a, 1992b, 1993a, 1993b, 1994a, 1994b, 1995, 1996, 1997 2001), Law & Lean (1999), Law & Spencer (2008), Lawrence (1991), Nelson (1964a), Nicolay & Dumont (2000), Winkelmann etal. (2000).	Simmons, N.B. and A.L. Cirranello. 2022B. Bat Species of the World: A taxonomic and geographic database. Accessed on 10/11/2022.	Pteropodidae	Syconycteris australis	Syconycteris		australis	Peters	1867	1	Monatsb. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin	1867: 13 footnote	Southern Blossom Bat	<b> crassa </b> Thomas, 1895; <b> finschi </b> Matschie, 1899; <b> keyensis </b> K. Andersen, 1911; <b> major </b> K. Andersen, 1911; <b> naias </b> K. Andersen, 1911; <b> papuana </b> Matschie, 1899.	Australia, Queensland, Rockhampton.	E Queensland and New South Wales (Australia); New Guinea, Aru Isl, Trobriand Isls, D'Entrecasteaux Isls, Kai Isls, Ambon, Seram, Haruku, and Boano Isls. (Indonesia), Bismarck Arch., including Manus (Papua New Guinea).	Not listed.	Least Concern	Includes naias and crassa ; see Lidicker and Ziegler (1968) and Koopman (1982). Reviewed by Hill (1983); also see Kitchener etal. (1994 d ), Flannery (1995 a , b ), Bonaccorso (1998), and Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). Subspecies limits aresomewhat unclear, particularly the status of the Kai Isl form ( keyensis ); see Kitchener et al. (1994 d ). It is possible that major from Ambon and Seram Isls represents a distinct species; see Kitchener et al. (1994 d ). Material from Haruku and BoanoIsls differs from typical major and may require recognition as a distinct subspecies; see Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). There is alsoan undescribed subspecies from Biak-Supiori (K. Helgen, pers. comm.). High-altitude specimens of australis from mainland New Guineaare also in need of systematic revision (Kompanje and Moeliker, 2001).	Mammal Diversity Database. (2023). Mammal Diversity Database (Version 1.11) [Data set]. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7830771 released 15 April 2023	Syconycteris australis	23	Southern Blossom Bat	Common Blossom Bat|Eastern Blossom Bat	Theria	Placentalia	Boreoeutheria	Laurasiatheria	CHIROPTERA	PTEROPODIFORMES	NA	NA	PTEROPODOIDEA	PTEROPODIDAE	MACROGLOSSUSINAE	NA	Syconycteris	NA	australis	W. Peters	1867	1	Macroglossus_minimus_var._australis	Peters, W. C. H. (1867). Herpetologische Notizen. Monatsberichte der Königlichen Preussische Akademie des Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1867, 13.	https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/112419#page/19/mode/1up	ZMB 3292		Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia.			australis (W. Peters, 1867)|crassa (O. Thomas, 1895)|finschi (Matschie, 1899)|papuana (Matschie, 1899)|keyensis K. Andersen, 1911|major K. Andersen, 1911|naias K. Andersen, 1911	NA	NA	Indonesia|Papua New Guinea|Australia	Oceania	Australasia/Oceania	LC	0	0	0	Syconycteris_australis	0	sciname match	Syconycteris_australis	0	IUCN. 2022. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2022-1. https://www.iucnredlist.org. Accessed on [28 September, 2022].	21185	Syconycteris australis	ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	MAMMALIA	CHIROPTERA	PTEROPODIDAE	Syconycteris	australis	(Peters, 1867)	Ongoing genetic and morphological studies reveal that Syconycteris australis contains more than one full species, with both allopatric and sympatric taxa (K.N. Armstrong, K.P. Aplin and K.M. Helgen unpublished data).	200000000	Syconycteris australis	Least Concern		2021	2016-02-17 00:00:00 UTC	3.1	English	This species is listed as Least Concern in view of the wide distribution and large populations of all identified subtaxa, the lack of any major threats, and the presence of several subtaxa in several protected areas. Although habitat modification and loss are occurring across the range of all subtaxa, all appear to be capable of utilising gardens, and degraded and secondary forests as well as primary forest, hence none are likely to be declining at anywhere near the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category.	All of the component species are adaptable, and the group as a whole is found in a variety of forest habitats, including upper and lower montane forest, hill forest, lowland rainforest and monsoonal forest, dry sclerophyll woodland and Melaleuca swamps (Bonaccorso 1998, Law and Spencer 2008). It forages commonly through gardens and plantations, and can also be found adjacent to heathland habitats. Females give birth to single young but they can breed more than once annually. L. Hall (pers. comm.) reports that this species in Australia (typical S. australis ) roosts in colonies in dense foliage in large-leaved trees. However, numerous observations of roosting animals in Papua New Guinea by K.P. Aplin always involve either single animals or small groups including juveniles. Feeding behaviour is poorly documented but incidental observations suggest that lowland populations in Papua New Guinea feed on a variety of flowering and fruit trees, utilising both nectar and fruit resources.	All members of this species complex seem to be highly adaptable and tolerant of habitat modification, and therefore there appear to be no major threats to this species in New Guinea and the surrounding island groups. South of Fraser Island in Queensland, coastal development including the drainage of paperbark swamps is a major threat locally (L. Hall pers. comm.).	All of the component species are common in degraded and secondary forests as well as primary forest. Very high capture rates at some localities suggest high local population densities and/or congregatory behaviour around preferred food resources. In lowland through to upper montane forest habitats members of this species group typically account for the majority of captures in mist nets. Population counts are hindered by the fact that they roost singly or in small groups under foliage and can be difficult to observe due to their excellent camouflage.	Stable	This widespread species complex ranges from the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia (including the islands of Ambon, Seram, and Gebe), to the islands of Salawati, Biak and Yapen (all Indonesia), throughout much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and the Aru Islands (Indonesia). The species is present in the Bismarck Archipelago (including the islands of New Britain and New Ireland; Papua New Guinea), on the island of Manus in the Admiralty Islands (Papua New Guinea), on the D’Entrecasteaux Islands (Papua New Guinea), the Louisiade Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), and is also found in Australia where it ranges through the forests of eastern Queensland and New South Wales (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998; Law and Spencer 2008). Overall, the species complex occurs from sea level to 3,000 m a.s.l. (Bonaccorso 1998) but there is altitudinal replacement of sibling species with zones of sympatry (K.P. Aplin, K.N. Armstrong and K.M. Helgen unpublished data). In New South Wales, it occurs only at low elevations, typically in the coastal lowlands (M. Pennay pers. comm.).		Terrestrial	It has been recorded from many protected areas.	Australasian		FALSE	FALSE	Global	Simmons, N. B., & Cirranello, A. L. (2023). Batnames.org Species List Version 1.4 (1.4). Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8136157 	Pteropodidae	Syconycteris		australis	Peters	1867	1	Monatsb. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin	1867: 13 [footnote]	Southern Blossom Bat	<b> crassa </b> Thomas, 1895; <b> finschi </b> Matschie, 1899; <b> keyensis </b> K. Andersen, 1911; <b> major </b> K. Andersen, 1911; <b> naias </b> K. Andersen, 1911; <b> papuana </b> Matschie, 1899.	Australia, Queensland, Rockhampton.	E Queensland and New South Wales (Australia); New Guinea, Aru Isl, Trobriand Isls, D'Entrecasteaux Isls, Kai Isls, Ambon, Seram, Haruku, and Boano Isls. (Indonesia), Bismarck Arch., including Manus (Papua New Guinea).	Not listed.	Least Concern	Includes naias and crassa ; see Lidicker and Ziegler (1968) and Koopman (1982). Reviewed by Hill (1983); also see Kitchener etal. (1994 d ), Flannery (1995 a , b ), Bonaccorso (1998), and Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). Subspecies limits aresomewhat unclear, particularly the status of the Kai Isl form ( keyensis ); see Kitchener et al. (1994 d ). It is possible that major from Ambon and Seram Isls represents a distinct species; see Kitchener et al. (1994 d ). Material from Haruku and BoanoIsls differs from typical major and may require recognition as a distinct subspecies; see Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). There is alsoan undescribed subspecies from Biak-Supiori (K. Helgen, pers. comm.). High-altitude specimens of australis from mainland New Guineaare also in need of systematic revision (Kompanje and Moeliker, 2001).	Syconycteris australis	1004409	23	Southern Blossom Bat	Common Blossom Bat|Eastern Blossom Bat	Theria	Placentalia	Boreoeutheria	Laurasiatheria	CHIROPTERA	PTEROPODIFORMES	NA	NA	PTEROPODOIDEA	Pteropodidae	MACROGLOSSUSINAE	NA	Syconycteris	NA	australis	W. Peters	1867	1	Macroglossus_minimus_var._australis	Peters, W. C. H. (1867). Herpetologische Notizen. Monatsberichte der Königlichen Preussische Akademie des Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1867, 13.	https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/112419#page/19/mode/1up	ZMB 3292		Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia.			australis (W. Peters, 1867)|crassa (O. Thomas, 1895)|finschi (Matschie, 1899)|papuana (Matschie, 1899)|keyensis K. Andersen, 1911|major K. Andersen, 1911|naias K. Andersen, 1911	NA	NA				Indonesia|Papua New Guinea|Australia	Oceania	Australasia/Oceania	LC	0	0	0	Syconycteris_australis	0	sciname match	Syconycteris_australis	0	Burgin, C. J., Zijlstra, J. S., Becker, M. A., Handika, H., Alston, J. M., Widness, J., Liphardt, S., Huckaby, D. G., and Upham, N. S. (2025). How many mammal species are there now? Updates and trends in taxonomic, nomenclatural, and geographic knowledge. Journal of Mammalogy in revision: TBD. https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.02.27.640393	Syconycteris_australis	1004409	23	Southern Blossom Bat	Common Blossom Bat|Eastern Blossom Bat	Theria	Placentalia	Boreoeutheria	Laurasiatheria	Chiroptera	Yinpterochiroptera	NA	NA	Pteropodoidea	Pteropodidae	Macroglossusinae	NA	Syconycteris	NA	australis	W. C. H. Peters	1	Macroglossus minimus var. australis	Peters, W.C.H. 1867. Herpetologische notizen. Monatsberichte der Königlichen Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin 1867:13-37.	https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/36510306	ZMB 3292	holotype		Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia.			NA	NA				Indonesia|Papua New Guinea|Australia	Oceania (Continent)	Australasia	LC	0	0	0	Syconycteris_australis	0	sciname match	Syconycteris_australis	0	Simmons, N. B., & Cirranello, A. L. (2025). Batnames.org Species List Version 1.7 (1.7). Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14796586	Pteropodidae	Syconycteris		australis	Peters	1867	1	Monatsb. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin	1867: 13 [footnote]	Southern Blossom Bat	crassa Thomas, 1895; finschi Matschie, 1899; keyensis K. Andersen, 1911; major  K. Andersen, 1911; naias K. Andersen, 1911; papuana Matschie, 1899.	Australia, Queensland, Rockhampton.	E Queensland and New South Wales (Australia); New Guinea, Aru Isl, Trobriand Isls, D'Entrecasteaux Isls, Kai Isls, Ambon, Seram, Haruku, and Boano Isls. (Indonesia), Bismarck Arch., including Manus (Papua New Guinea).	<a href='https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php' target='_blank'>Not Listed</a>	<a href='https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/21185/209535645/' target='_blank'>Least Concern</a>	Includes naias and crassa; see Lidicker and Ziegler (1968) and Koopman (1982). Reviewed by Hill (1983); also see Kitchener etal. (1994d), Flannery (1995a, b), Bonaccorso (1998), and Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). Subspecies limits aresomewhat unclear, particularly the status of the Kai Isl form (keyensis); see Kitchener et al. (1994d). It is possible that major from Ambon and Seram Isls represents a distinct species; see Kitchener et al. (1994d). Material from Haruku and BoanoIsls differs from typical major and may require recognition as a distinct subspecies; see Kompanje and Moeliker (2001). There is alsoan undescribed subspecies from Biak-Supiori (K. Helgen, pers. comm.). High-altitude specimens of australis from mainland New Guineaare also in need of systematic revision (Kompanje and Moeliker, 2001).		Mammal Diversity Database. (2025). Mammal Diversity Database (Version 2.2) [Data set]. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15007505	NA	Syconycteris australis; Syconycteris australis; Syconycteris australis; Syconycteris australis; Syconycteris australis; Syconycteris australis; australis; crassa; finschi; keyensis; major; naias; papuana; australis; crassa; finschi; keyensis; major; naias; papuana; crassa; finschi; keyensis; major; naias; papuana; australis; crassa; finschi; papuana; keyensis; major; naias; Syconyctére du Queensland; Sidlicher Blutenflughund; Syconicterio de Queensland; Blossom Bat; Common Blossom Bat; Eastern Blossom Bat; Southern Blossom Bat; Common Blossom Bat; Eastern Blossom Bat; Southern Blossom Bat; Southern Blossom Bat; S. australis